With regard to childrens views of gender stereotypes, research has indicated that

Front Psychol. 2021; 12: 789764.

Abstract

Substantial gender disparities in career advancement are still apparent, for instance in the gender pay gap, the overrepresentation of women in parttime work, and the underrepresentation of women in managerial positions. Regarding the developmental origins of these gender disparities, the current study examined whether children’s views about future career and family involvement were associated with children’s own gender schemas [gender stereotypes, gender identity] and parents’ career- and family-related gender roles. Participants were 142 Dutch families with a child between the ages of 6 and 12 years old [M = 9.80, SD = 1.48, 60% girls]. The families had different compositions [1 parent, 2 parents, 1 to 3 children]. Children completed a computer task assessing gender stereotypes about toys and questionnaires on gender identity [i.e., felt similarity to same- and other-gender children] and their views about future career and family involvement. Parents reported their occupation, work hours, and task division in the home, which were combined in a composite variable reflecting gender-typicality of career and family involvement. Generalized estimation equations were used to take into account dependency between family members. Results revealed that parents’, and especially mothers’, gender-typical career and family involvement was associated with children’s gender-typical views about future career and family involvement. In addition, children’s felt similarity to the same gender was associated with children’s gender-typical expectations about career and family involvement. These findings suggest that parents’ career, work hours, and task division in the home, together play an important role in how their children envision their future work and family roles. Children themselves also play an active role in developing this vision for the future by their own gender identity, specifically by how similar they feel to individuals of the same gender. To reduce gender disparities in the occupational and domestic domain, programs need to be designed that focus on parental role modeling in the family as well as children’s gender identity development.

Keywords: career, family, aspirations, gender identity, role models, parents, middle childhood

Introduction

Worldwide, substantial gender disparities in career advancement are still apparent, for instance in the gender pay gap [globally, women get paid approximately 20% less than men; International Labour Organization, 2019a], the overrepresentation of women in parttime work [25% of women compared to 10% of men, OECD, 2019], and the underrepresentation of women in managerial positions [0.50] indicated more gender-typicality of a certain occupation, lower score [5% change criterion [Rothman et al., 2008].

Results

Descriptive Statistics

Tables 2, ​3 display descriptive statistics and correlations for all study variables, for children and parents separately. All variables approached a normal distribution. Several outliers were identified [gender stereotypes: n = 2, other-gender similarity: n = 2, task division: n = 2]. These outliers were winsorized [highest non-outlying number + difference between highest non-outlying number and before highest non-outlying number; Tabachnick and Fidell, 2012].

TABLE 2

Descriptive statistics of child study variables.

TABLE 3

Descriptive statistics of parent study variables.

As can be seen in Table 2, for children, same-gender similarity was significantly associated with more gender-typical expectations about future career versus family involvement. Same-gender similarity was negatively associated with other-gender similarity. More other-gender similarity was associated with less strong gender stereotypes about toys. None of the other child variables were significantly correlated. Independent t-tests were conducted to examine gender differences on the child variables. First, the proportion of women in girls’ desired careers [M = 0.59, SD = 0.20] was significantly higher than the proportion of women in boys’ desired careers [M = 0.41, SD = 0.20, t[208] = 6.54, p < 0.001]. Boys were thus more likely to desire careers in which men were overrepresented, whereas girls were more likely to desire careers in which women were overrepresented. Second, girls expected more gender-typical family versus career involvement [M = 3.29, SD = 0.82] than boys [M = 2.85, SD = 0.79, t[208] = 3.85, p < 0.001]. Girls also reported more other-gender similarity [M = 2.28, SD = 0.76] than boys did [M = 1.88, SD = 0.77, t[208] = 3.70, p < 0.001]. However, boys reported more same-gender similarity [M = 4.16, SD = 0.76] than girls did [M = 3.88, SD = 0.94, t[201.04] = −2.38, p = 0.018]. There was no gender difference in children’s gender stereotypes [t[208] = −0.81, p = 0.418] [i.e., boys and girls did not differ in response latencies to stereotype-inconsistent versus stereotype-consistent trials in the task assessing gender stereotypes about toys].

As can be seen in Table 3, for fathers, there were significant associations in the expected direction between work hours, task division, and gender-typicality of their career. For mothers, more work hours were associated with a less traditional task division as well as a less gender-typical career. An independent t-test on the proportion of women in the occupations that fathers and mothers reported themselves to be in, revealed that mothers reported occupations with a higher proportion of women [M = 0.63, SD = 0.20] than fathers [M = 0.32, SD = 0.23, t[208,76] = 11.28, p < 0.001].

As all the correlations between the independent variables in Tables 2, ​3 were below 0.70, there were no issues with multi-collinearity in further analyses.

Predictors of the Gender-Typicality of Children’s Desired Future Career

Table 4 displays results for the final GEE model for children’s gender-typical desired future career. Only parents’ gender-typical career and family involvement was associated with the gender-typicality of children’s desired career. Children’s gender stereotypes about toys and same- and other-gender similarity were not related to children’s desired career. Regarding the covariates, younger child age and older parental age were associated with more gender-typical desired careers.

TABLE 4

Generalized estimation equations predicting gender-typicality of children’s desired career from children’s gender identity, stereotypes, and parents’ gender-typical career and family involvement.

The additional interaction between parent gender and parents’ gender-typical career-family involvement was not significant [B = −0.001, SE = 0.01, 95% CI = −0.02, 0.02, Wald = 0.002, p = 0.962]. This indicated that the association between parents’ gender-typical career-family involvement and children’s desired future career was not driven primarily by mothers or fathers. The additional interaction between gender composition of the parent-child dyad and parents’ gender-typical career-family involvement was not significant [B = −0.01, SE = 0.02, 95% CI = −0.04, 0.02, Wald = 0.15, p = 0.704]. This indicated that the association between parents’ gender-typical career-family involvement and children’s desired career was not different for same-gender and other-gender parent-child dyads.

Predictors of the Gender-Typicality of Children’s Expectations About Future Career and Family Involvement

Table 5 displays results for the final GEE model for children’s gender-typical expectations about involvement with career and family. More same-gender similarity in children was associated with more gender-typical expectations about involvement with career and family. Children’s gender stereotypes about toys and other-gender similarity were not related to children’s gender-typical career-family expectations. Regarding the covariates, being a girl and younger child age were associated with more gender-typical expectations about future career and family involvement.

TABLE 5

Generalized estimation equations predicting children’s gender-typical expectations about future career and family involvement from children’s gender identity, stereotypes and parents’ gender-typical career and family involvement.

In addition, the interaction between parent gender and parents’ gender-typical career-family involvement was significant [B = 0.10, SE = 0.05, 95% CI = 0.01, 0.19, Wald = 4.49, p = 0.034]. This indicated that only mothers’ gender-typical career and family involvement was associated with children’s gender-typical expectations about future career and family involvement.

The additional interaction between gender composition of the parent-child dyad and parents’ gender-typical career-family involvement was not significant [B = −0.05, SE = 0.07, 95% CI = −0.19, 0.10, Wald = 0.38, p = 0.536]. This indicated that the association between parents’ gender-typical career-family involvement and children’s expected career-family involvement was not different for same-gender and mixed-gender parent-child dyads.

Discussion

This study was conducted to examine whether children’s views about future career and family involvement were associated with children’s own gender stereotypes and identity as well as parents’ gender-typical career and family involvement. Results revealed that parents’, and especially mothers’, gender-typical career and family involvement was associated with children’s gender-typical views about their future career and family life. In addition, children’s felt similarity to the same gender as well as mothers’ gender-typical career and family involvement were associated with children’s gender-typical expectations about their future career and family involvement. Children’s gender stereotypes about toys were not related to children’s views about future career and family involvement. Finally, associations between parent’s gender-typical career and family involvement and children’s views about their future were not different between same-gender and mixed-gender parent-child dyads.

Our findings for children’s gender identity provide some support for gender-schema theories’ prediction that gender schemas provide social standards that guide children’s behavior and choices [Bem, 1981; Martin and Halverson, 1987]. Children with strong gender schemas, for example because they felt high similarity to same-gender peers, in this study indeed held more gender-typical expectations about future career and family involvement but did not desire a more gender-typical career. An explanation for the congruence between the level of same-gender similarity and children’s gender-typical expectations about their career and family involvement, is that children are motivated to make their behavior consistent with the behavior of the group they identify with [Martin and Dinella, 2012]. That desired career was not linked with children’s gender identity might be because children in middle childhood children still have limited knowledge of the gender typicality of occupations [Gottfredson, 2002]. Our findings extend previous research linking higher gender-typicality to more traditional occupational interests and career choices [Leaper and Van, 2008; Patterson, 2012; Dinella et al., 2014], by showing that gender identity aspects also relate to expectations about future involvement in the domestic sphere.

Unexpectedly, children’s gender stereotypes, specifically in relation to toys, were not related to their views about their future career and family involvement. It could be that the link between children’s gender stereotypes about toys and children’s views about their future is too indirect to be found without also examining possible underlying mediating factors. For instance, gender stereotypes about toys have been associated with gender-typed toy play [Weisgram, 2016] which in turn has been associated with adolescents’ gender-typical occupational interests [Kung, 2021]. Future research could examine this mediational process. The lack of associations with children’s gender stereotypes about toys might also be due to our measure including both toys that have a clear link with the domestic sphere [e.g., baby dolls, toy kitchen] or the career sphere [e.g., fire truck, tools], as well as toys that are less directly linked to these domains [e.g., pirate costume, princess costume]. Our measure consisted of too few trials to examine the effect of toy type. Future research could examine whether children’s gender stereotypes about toys with clear links to the career or domestic spheres are related to their views about future career and family involvement.

We also found some evidence for the role modeling prediction from social learning theory [Bandura, 1977; Bussey and Bandura, 1999]. It appears that parents’, and especially mothers’, gender-typical career and family involvement are associated with children’s views about future career and family life. Our findings demonstrate that previously found associations between parents’ work- and family-related gender roles and children’s career and family aspirations [Fulcher and Coyle, 2011; Croft et al., 2014; Polavieja and Platt, 2014; Oliveira et al., 2020] also hold in a family-systems context. In the current study parents could provide a model for traditional gender-role behavior by working in a career domain with a high percentage of same-gender peers, when mothers worked few hours outside the home, when fathers worked many hours outside the home, and when mothers were more responsible than fathers for household and childcare tasks. By observing such traditional gender roles in the career and family involvement of their parents, children will learn how males and females act, which will shape their views about their future career and family life. An explanation for why especially mothers’ work- and family-related gender roles were important for children’s expectations about career versus family involvement could be that especially mothers might provide a model for balancing work and family roles. Indeed, mothers have been found to experience more work-family conflict than fathers [Shockley et al., 2017].

No support was found for the same-gender modeling hypothesis of social learning theory [Bandura, 1977; Bussey and Bandura, 1999]. Previous research also produced mixed findings regarding same-gender modeling of parents’ career and family involvement [Fulcher, 2011; Fulcher and Coyle, 2011; Croft et al., 2014; Polavieja and Platt, 2014; Oliveira et al., 2020]. In the current study the associations between parents’ gender-typical career and family involvement and children’s views about future career and family involvement, were not more salient in same-gender dyads than in mixed-gender dyads. It appears that fathers and mothers are important role models for both boys and girls. This might not be surprising as mothers’ and fathers’ gender roles in a family are closely interrelated [Oláh and Neyer, 2021]. For instance, when one parent increases their work hours, the other parent is likely to compensate for the reduced involvement in the family [Hook, 2006; Fox, 2009]. So, it might actually be the combination of mothers and fathers work in and outside the family that conveys messages to children about how men and women balance work and family responsibilities and that shapes children’s views about future career and family life.

A final noteworthy finding is that we found correlational evidence for a possible developmental process implicated in children’s views about their future selves, as older child age was associated with less gender-typical views about career and family. This finding fits with previous research demonstrating that children’s gender stereotypes become more flexible and less rigid over time [Trautner et al., 2005]. In addition, this finding is noteworthy because it could imply that children’s views about their future career and family involvement might over time become less congruent with their gender identity or their parents’ career and family involvement [assuming that the latter two factors remain relatively constant over time]. This hypothesis remains to be tested longitudinally, as well as how children experience or resolve this increasing incongruence.

Even though our study is strong in terms of the family-systems approach and the use of mixed methods [i.e., computer task, parent-report, child-report], our findings must be viewed in light of some limitations. First, because of the correlational design of this study, we were not able to determine the direction of effects in the association that were found. More longitudinal research is now necessary to unravel the gendered developmental processes underlying the career decision making process. Second, our sample size was too small to optimally utilize the dual gender identity approach by examining how different gender-identity typologies are related to children’s gender-typical views about career and family involvement. Third, even though we, and previous studies [e.g., Croft et al., 2014], found relevant associations with children’s expected future involvement with career and family, the measure used to assess children’s expectations only consisted of 2 items. Future research could extend this measure to assess children’s gendered expectations for the future in a more multi-faceted way. Finally, a convenience sampling method was used, which resulted in a sample that was more highly educated than the population.

In sum, this family-systems study demonstrated that parents’ own career, work hours, and task division in the home, together play an important role in how their children envision their future work and family roles. This suggests that intergenerational transmission plays a role in the perpetuation of gender disparities in the occupational and domestic domain. Children themselves also play an active role in developing this vision for the future by their own gender identity, specifically by how similar they feel to individuals of the same gender. A practical implication of these findings is that parents need to be made aware of the roles their own gender-role behavior, as well as their children’s gender identity, play in the career decision making process of their children. For boys and girls to make career decisions that fit with their interests and competencies, instead of their gender or their parents’ gender roles, parents could encourage children to explore a wide range of career and educational options. In addition, programs and policies could stimulate more equality in parental gender roles as well as children’s felt similarity to people of both genders, in order to reduce gender disparities in the occupational and domestic domain.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by The Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Social Sciences at Utrecht University [number FETC18-097]. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardian/next of kin.

Author Contributions

JE: conceptualization, formal analysis, methodology and design, and writing – original draft. JE and CP: supervision of data collection and processing of data. CP: writing – review and editing. Both authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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