Abstract
The effects of physiological arousal on persuasion are investigated. An exercise task was used to manipulate physiological arousal, and systolic blood pressure readings were taken to assess the effectiveness of this manipulation. The results indicate that endorser status [celebrity or noncelebrity] has a stronger influence on brand attitudes under high than under moderate levels of physiological arousal, whereas argument strength has a greater impact under moderate than under high arousal levels. The results are consistent with the Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion.
Journal Information
Founded in 1974, the Journal of Consumer Research publishes scholarly research that describes and explains consumer behavior. Empirical, theoretical, and methodological articles spanning fields such as psychology, marketing, sociology, economics, and anthropology are featured in this interdisciplinary journal. The primary thrust of JCR is academic, rather than managerial, with topics ranging from micro-level processes [e.g., brand choice] to more macro-level issues [e.g., the development of materialistic values].
Publisher Information
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. OUP is the world's largest university press with the widest global presence. It currently publishes more than 6,000 new publications a year, has offices in around fifty countries, and employs more than 5,500 people worldwide. It has become familiar to millions through a diverse publishing program that includes scholarly works in all academic disciplines, bibles, music, school and college textbooks, business books, dictionaries and reference books, and academic journals.
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Stress
This is a stimulus resulting in a positive or negative response to a specific situation. It produces both physiological and psychological symptoms.
“a
pattern of negative physiological states and psychological responses occurring in situations where people perceive threats to their well being, which they may be unable to meet”
Stress can therefore be explained as two forms:
- Eustress – this is positive and gives a feeling of fulfilment and arousal. It can increase focus, attention and skill level. Some athletes actively seek and need stressful situations.
- Distress - this is a negative form of stress and in extreme cases causes anxiety and apprehension. It tends to be detrimental to sporting performance.
Effects of stress on performance
Depending upon the athlete’s level of ability, level of competition or personality stress can have a big impact on performance. If the athlete perceives the demand as a challenge [Eustress] or as a threat [Distress] the result will be an increase in motivation and performance compared with an increase in worry and a reduction in performance respectively.
Causes of stress
Athletes will respond differently in the same situation, here are some of the main causes of stress:
- Internal – illness, sleep, Type A personality
- External – environment, other people, occupational
Anxiety
This is a negative emotional state associated with stress, feelings of worry, nervousness and apprehension. The causes of anxiety are largely the same as those associated with stress. There are two main types of anxiety:
- Trait anxiety – this is the personality core, and consistent worry/behaviour regardless of situation
- State anxiety – this is changeable and varies depending upon the situation. It is a temporary mood state and it comprises of two types:
- Cognitive state anxiety – amount of worry
- Somatic state anxiety – is the physiological changes due to perception
Effects of anxiety on sporting performance
When an athlete experiences worry and negative thoughts [cognitive state anxiety] it causes decision making to become poor and concentration levels to drop, increasing the number of errors. This can be monitored by the increase in somatic state anxiety responses, which include an increase in heart rate, sweating and blood pressure. Some of these symptoms of anxiety are beneficial to sporting performance, but if the athlete perceives them as happening because they are unable to meet the demands of the activity they further increase cognitive state anxiety.
Arousal
Arousal is referred to as a psychological state of alertness and anticipation that prepares the body for action. Individual athletes have different levels of arousal and it is either negative or positive but neutral.
Theories of Arousal
Sporting performance and its relationship with arousal can be demonstrated by several theories:
- Drive Theory
- Inverted U hypothesis
- Catastrophe Theory
- Zone of Optimal Functioning [ZOF] Theory
Drive Theory
This is a linear relationship between arousal and performance, as arousal increases sot ot does performance.
However evidence suggests that this theory is only relevant up to a point, after which an athlete can be over aroused and performance decreases.
Inverted U hypothesis
This theory states that there is an optimal level of arousal [which will differ from sport to sport and athlete to athlete]. Performance levels will be at their highest at the optimal point of arousal. If arousal is too low or too high performance will be lower.
Catastrophe Theory
This theory differs from the inverted U hypothesis by linking arousal and anxiety. If the athlete is experiencing high levels of cognitive state anxiety as arousal rises towards the athletes threshold, the athlete experiences a dramatic drop in performance. This theory does also rely on the need for both arousal and cognitive anxiety to achieve optimal performance.
Zone of Optimal Functioning [ZOF] [Hanin]
The relationship of stress, anxiety and arousal all impact upon motivation and the improvement of performance up to a point. However optimal performance has many other variables that impact upon arousal and the individual:
Personality
Extroverts perform well when aroused
Introverts perform best at low levels of arousal
Task
Simple/Gross performed better in high arousal levels
Complex/fine
Performed better in low arousal levels
Stage of learning
Autonomous stage perform better in high arousal levels
Cognitive and associative stages perform better in low arousal levels
Unlike the inverted U hypothesis ZOF states that individuals perform optimally at different arousal levels depending upon the above factors, therefore not all athletes optimal performance is at the top of the inverted U.
| Athlete A Low Zone of Functioning [low arousal] | Introvert | Simple/Gross skills, e.g. Shotput | cognative/associative phase |
| Athlete C High Zone of Functioning [high arousal] | extrovert | Complex/Fine skills, e.g. Spin bowling | Autonomous |
Effects of arousal on sporting performance
If the performer perceives arousal levels to be positive it will have a positive impact on performance [getting in the zone]. However if the changes are viewed as negative it will increase both somatic and cognitive state anxiety. Choking occurs in high-pressure situations and this heightened state cause extreme nervous and performance catastrophe.
Controlling stress, arousal and anxiety
Progressive muscular relaxation is a technique used to remove tension in the muscles. This technique allows the athlete to contract relaxation and tension within the muscles. It also combines the control of breathing helping with the symptoms of somatic state anxiety. There are many different types of this biofeedback control.
Imagery allows athletes to increase/decrease arousal/ anxiety levels by visualising aspects of previous positive performances. If psyching up is required the athlete focuses on performances that required high levels of energy and feelings of heightened arousal. If anxiety and stress need to be reduced the athlete focuses on the feelings of well-being and positivity.
Self-talk focuses on the performer convincing themselves that they are good enough to perform and play well, most sportspersons will have used it e.g. ‘Come On you can do it!’.
Self-confidence
Sports psychologists, coaches and athletes work hard to build up confidence in the sportsperson. The techniques already discussed with aid and support the athlete’s self-confidence. It is important to develop of feeling of worth and success and focus on successful performances.
Quick Check
- Stress is a stimulus resulting in a positive or negative response to a specific situation. It produces both physiological and psychological symptoms.
- Stress has two forms: Eustress – this is positive and gives a feeling of fulfilment and arousal. Distress - this is a negative form of stress and in extreme cases causes anxiety and apprehension.
- Depending upon the athlete’s level of ability, level of competition or personality stress can have a big impact on performance.
- Anxiety is a negative emotional state associated with stress, feelings of worry, nervousness and apprehension.
- There are two main types of anxiety: Trait anxiety – this is the personality core, State anxiety – this is changeable and varies depending upon the situation.
- There are two types of state anxiety: Cognitive state anxiety – amount of worry, Somatic state anxiety – is the physiological changes due to perception
- Arousal is referred to as a psychological state of alertness and anticipation that prepares the body for action.
- Sporting performance and its relationship with arousal can be demonstrated by several theories: Drive Theory, Inverted U hypothesis, Catastrophe Theory, Zone of Optimal Functioning [ZOF] Theory