What do we call the collection of tasks and responsibilities performed by one person?

"Job Analysis"

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

WHEN YOU HAVE FINISHED STUDYING THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

1. Clarify the terms "job" and "position".

2. Understand what job analysis is.

3. Discuss the purposes and importance of doing job analysis.

4. Describe the ways to collect job analysis information.

5. Write job descriptions and job specifications.

CHAPTER OUTLINE

• What is job analysis?
• Why is job analysis important?
• Job Analysis Process.
• Job analysis Methods.
• Preparing job descriptions and job specifications

1. JOB ANALYSIS DEFINED.

The most basic building block of HR management, job analysis, is the systematic way to gather and analyse information about the content of jobs, the human requirements, and the context in which jobs are performed1.

Yet, before discussing job analysis further, some clarification of the terms 'job' and 'position' shall be useful. Thus, a job is a grouping of similar positions having common tasks, duties and responsibilities. Whereas a position is a collection of tasks, duties and responsibilities performed by one person2. And although the terms 'job' and 'position' are often used interchangeably in the literature, there is in fact a slight difference in meaning. Thus, if a food store has seven individuals working as cashiers, there are seven positions associated with the one job of cashier.

Job analysis usually collects information on the characteristics of one job that differentiate it from other jobs.

2. PURPOSES AND IMPORTANCE OF JOB ANALYSIS.

Job analysis provides the information necessary to develop job descriptions and job specifications. The completion of job descriptions and job specifications, based upon a job analysis, is at the heart of many other HR activities as Figure 6.1 indicates.

Fig. 6.1 "Job analysis and other HR activities", Mathis and Jackson, p. 180

Also, job analysis serves several specific purposes2:

• Provides jobs applicants with realistic job information regarding duties, working conditions and requirements.
• Identifies relationships between supervisors and subordinates.
• Aids in defining each employee's duties and related tasks.
• Serves as a basis for training, career planning and career development.
• Is used to determine the relative worth of jobs, and thereby serves to maintain external and internal pay equity.
• Can serve as a tool that facilitates job redesign and change.
• Can facilitate organisational change by identifying redundancies during mergers, acquisitions, and downsizing.
• Guides supervisors and incumbents in writing references and preparing CVs, respectively, for employees leaving and seeking new employment.

3. THE JOB ANALYSIS PROCESS.

The process of conducting a job analysis must be done in a logical manner that follows appropriate psychometric practices. Therefore, a multistep process is usually followed, regardless of the job analysis methods used3. The basic process followed is shown in Figure 6.2.

Fig. 6.2 "Typical Job�Analysis process", Mathis and Jackson, p. 185

• Step1: Identify Jobs and Review Existing Documentation. The first step is to identify the jobs under review. Are the jobs to be analysed hourly jobs, managerial jobs, all jobs in one division, or all jobs in the entire organisation? Part of the identification phase is to review changing documentation - such as existing job descriptions, organisation charts, previous job analysis information, and other industry-related sources. In this phase, those who will be involved in conducting the job analysis are determined and the methods that will be used are specified.
• Step 2: Explain the Process to Managers and Employees. A crucial step is to explain the process to managers and affected employees. Items to be covered often include: the purpose of the job analysis; the steps involved, the time schedule; how managers and employees will participate; who is doing the analysis; and whom to contact when questions arise.
• Step 3: Conduct the Job Analysis. The next step is actually the collection of job analysis information. Questionnaires might be distributed, interviews conducted, and/or observations made.
• Step 4: Prepare Job Descriptions and Specifications. On the basis of the collected job analysis information, descriptions and specifications are drafted for each job under review. The drafts are then sent to appropriate managers and employees for their review. Following the review, all necessary changes are made, and the final job descriptions and specifications are prepared.
• Step 5: Maintain and Update Job Descriptions and Specifications. Once job descriptions and specifications are completed and reviewed with all appropriate individuals, a system must be developed for keeping them current. Otherwise, the entire process, beginning with a job analysis, may have to be repeated.

4. JOB ANALYSIS METHODS.

Information about jobs can be gathered in several ways. Four common methods are4:

• Observation
• Interviewing
• Questionnaires
• Structured analysis

Combination of these methods frequently are used, depending on the situation and the organisation.

• OBSERVATION. In observation, a manager, job analyst, or industrial engineer observes the individual performing the job and takes notes to describe the tasks and duties performed. Use of the observation method is limited because many jobs do not have complete and easily observed job cycles. Also, observation may not be as useful for jobs that 'knowledge work' as it is for ones that are primarily physical work. Furthermore, many managers may not be skilled enough to know what to observe and how to analyse what they see. Thus, observation may be more useful in repetitive jobs and in conjunction with other methods.

• INTERVIEWING. The interview method of gathering information requires that a manager, or HR specialist, visit each job site and talk with the employees performing each job. A structured interview form is used most often to record the information. Frequently, both the employee and the employee's supervisor must be interviewed to obtain a complete understanding of the job. During the job analysis interview, the interviewer must make judgments about the information to be included and its degree of importance. For certain difficult to define jobs, group interviews may be used. The interview method may be time consuming and expensive, especially if the interviewer talks with two or three employees doing the same job. In addition, professional and managerial jobs often are more complicated to analyse and usually require longer interviews. For these reasons, combining interview with one of the other methods is suggested.

• QUESTIONNAIRE. The questionnaire is a widely used method of gathering data on jobs. A survey instrument is developed and given to employees and managers to complete. The typical job questionnaire often includes questions on the following areas5:

• duties and percentage of time spent on each
• special duties performed less frequently
• external and internal contacts
• work coordination and supervisory responsibilities
• materials and equipment used
• decisions made and discretion exercised
• records and reports prepared
• knowledge, skills and abilities used
• training needed
• physical activities and characteristics
• working conditions

Sometimes, it is beneficial for the employee and supervisor to complete the questionnaire independently. At least, one employee per job should complete the questionnaire, which is then returned to the supervisor ore manager for review before being used in preparing job descriptions.

The major advantage of the questionnaire method is that information on a large number of jobs can be collected inexpensively in a relatively short period of time. However, follow-up observations and discussions often are necessary to clarify questions arising from inadequately completed questionnaires and to deal with other interpretation problems.

The questionnaire method assumes that employees can accurately analyse and communicate information about their jobs. This, however, may not be a valid assumption in all cases.

• STRUCTURED METHODS. Several job analysis methods are built on the questionnaire approach. The most prominent of these methods are: the Position Analysis Questionnaire {PAQ], computerised job analysis and managerial job analysis.

POSITION ANALYSIS QUESTIONNAIRE [PAQ]. The PAQ is a specialised questionnaire method incorporating checklists. Each job is analysed in terms of 27 dimensions composed of 187 'elements' of a job. The PAQ is divided into six divisions, each division containing numerous job elements. The divisions include6:

• Information input. Where and how does the employee get information to perform the job?
• Mental process. What levels of reasoning are necessary on the job?
• Work output. What physical activities are performed?
• Relationships with others. What relationships are required to perform the job?
• Job context. What working conditions and social contexts are involved?
• Other. What else is relevant to the job?

A sample page is illustrated in Table 6.1. The PAQ can be completed by job analysts who interview employees and observe work as it is being done. It also can be completed by the employee himself/herself.

Table 6.1 "PAQ", Mathis and Jackson, p. 192

SAMPLE PAQ ITEM MENTAL PROCESSES

____ Combining information [combining, synthesizing, or integrating information or data from two or more sources to establish new facts hypotheses, theories, or a more complete body of related information; for example, an economist using information from various sources to predict future economic conditions, a pilot flying an aircraft, a judge trying a case, etc.]

____ Analyzing information or data [for the purpose of identifying underlying principles or factsby breaking down information into component parts; for example, interpreting financial reports, diagnosing mechanical disorders or medical symptoms, etc.]

____ Compiling [gathering, grouping, classifying, or in some other way arranging information or data in some meaning-ful order or form; for example, preparing reports of various kinds, filing correspodndence on the basis of content, selecting particular data to be gathered, etc.]

____ Coding/decoding [coding information or converting coded information back to its original form; for example, "reading" Morse code, translating foreign languages, or using other coding systems such as shorthand, mathematical symbols, computer languages, drafting symbols, replacement part numbers, etc.]

____ Transcribing [copying or posting data or information for later use; for example, copying meter readings in a record book, entering transactions in a ledger, etc.]

____ Other information processing activities [specify]

SOURCE: E. J. McCormick, P.R. Jeanneret, and R.C. Mecham, Position Analysis Questionnaire, Occupational Research Center, Dept/. of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907. � 1969 by Purdue Research Foundation.

COMPUTERISED JOB ANALYSIS. As computer technology has expanded, efforts by researchers have led to the development of computerised job analysis systems. These systems have banks of job duty statements that relate to each of the task and scope statements of the questionnaires, and job questionnaire data is input into the computer using optical scan forms. Then the data from employees are used to generate behaviourally specific job descriptions. These descriptions categorise and identify the relative importance of various job tasks, duties, and responsibilities. Sample statements of computerised job analysis are presented in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2 "CJA", Mathis and Jackson, p. 194

SAMPLE�ORGANIZATIONAL�MEASUREMENT�SYSTEM�[OMS]�STATEMENTS

SOURCE: Adapted from Organizational Measurement System, Technical Job Analysis Questionnaire.

One advantage of these systems is that they can reduce much of the time and effort involved in writing job descriptions. Another advantage of computerised systems is that the results can be used to develop job evaluation weights and rankings that are tied into pay structures. Furthermore, because these systems are behaviourally based, they can identify the specific skills and abilities required in the job . Thus, job specifications that focus on specific KSAs [knowledge, skills and abilities] for each job can be developed, which may improve recruiting, selection, training and other HR activities.

MANAGERIAL JOB ANALYSIS. Becausemanagerial jobs are different in character from jobs with clearly observable routines and procedures, some specialised methods have evolved for their analysis. One of the most well known is labeled the Management Position Description Questionnaire [MPDQ]. Composed of a listing of over 200 statements, the MPDQ examines a variety of managerial dimensions, including decision making and supervising7.

Another approach is the Executive Checklist [EXCEL] . In this checklist, approximately 250 statements are available on planning and decision making, product R and D, and sales among others8.

If appropriate, both of these Managerial Job Analysis Methods may be supplemented by use of interviews.

5. WRITING JOB DESCRIPTIONS AND JOB SPECIFICATIONS.

The output of job analysis is the development of job descriptions and job specifications. In most cases the job description and job specifications are combined into one document that contains several different sections.

Job Descriptions. A job description indicates the tasks, duties and responsibilities of a job9. It identifies what is done, why it is done, where it is done, and briefly how it is done.

A typical job description, such as the one presented in Table 6.3, contains three major parts: identification, general summary and essential functions and duties10.

• Identification. The first part of the job description is the identification section, in which the job title, reporting relationships, department, location, and date of analysis may be given.
• General Summary. The second part, general summary, is a concise summation of the general responsibilities and components that make the job different from others - 'a description of the essence of a job in thirty words, or less'.
• Essential Functions and Duties. The third part of the typical job description lists the essential functions and duties. It contains clear and precise statements on the major tasks, duties and responsibilities performed. The most time-consuming aspect of preparing job descriptions is writing this section.

Job Specifications. The job description describes activities to be done in the job. Job specifications list the knowledge, skills and abilities [KSAs] an individual needs to perform the job satisfactorily11. Knowledge, skills and abilities [KSAs] include education, experience, work skill requirements and working conditions and hazards. In writing job specifications, it is important to list specifically those KSAs essential for satisfactory job performance.

CASE

Cynthia Lee has just been hired as an HR assistant at Decter Computer Corporation [DCC], a mid-sized company and leading producer of electronic equipment. Angela Richards, Cynthia's immediate supervisor, is the HR director at DCC. Cynthia's first major task is to formalise DCC's job descriptions and job specifications based on a job analysis of each position. Angela told Cynthia that she would be responsible for the whole for the entire project, which she estimated would take eight weeks to complete. Angela made it clear that Cynthia would be given autonomy to interview both supervisors and employees.

Angela send a memo to all supervisors explaining that Cynthia was responsible for completing a job analysis of each of the positions they supervised. She asked for their full cooperation and requested that they call her if they had any questions. After the memo was circulated , Cynthia began lining up interviews with the supervisors. She decided that the supervisors would be the best source of data for job descriptions and specifications, and planned to develop a narrative format similar to a sample job description in one of her personnel texts. As a final step in collecting job information, Cynthia decided to interview at least one employee in each of the positions being studied.

After three weeks, Cynthia became discouraged over the progress she was making on what she believed was a straightforward project. She had managed to interview only 7 of the 20 supervisors. The supervisors seemed unwilling to cooperate with Cynthia. They often missed interview meetings and dragged their feet in rescheduling them. Although Cynthia had originally planned to talk to all of the supervisors first, the delays prompted her to begin interviewing job incumbents.

After only a few interviews with employees, Cynthia became concerned about the quality of information that she was obtaining. The employees appeared to be giving her conflicting information on both their job duties and the skills required to perform their jobs. In general the employees saw their jobs as more demanding, requiring more duties, and utilising more skills than the supervisors indicated. Despite these conflicts, Cynthia decided to push ahead so that she could submit the completed descriptions and specifications to Angela by the agreed-upon deadline.

At the end of the eight weeks and several long nights, Cynthia proudly presented a packet of job descriptions and specifications to Angela. Despite the obstacles, Cynthia believed that she had achieved the major objectives of the project. Angela assigned Cynthia another project. Several weeks later when Cynthia had all but forgotten about the job descriptions and specifications, Angela met with Cynthia to discuss a problem that had developed. It seems that several of the supervisors were annoyed about the difference in opinion with their subordinates over job duties.

QUESTIONS.

1. Was Cynthia's strategy of interviewing one employee in each position a good one? Explain.

2. Why were the supervisors unwilling to cooperate with Cynthia?

3. On becoming concerned about the quality of the data, should Cynthia have changed her methods?

4. Do the job descriptions and specifications need to be rewritten? How?

Source: Schuler, R.S. [1995]. Managing Human Resources.Min/St. Paul: West Publishing

Click here to send your answers

NOTES.

WHAT IS tasks and responsibilities performed by one person?

What is a collection of tasks and responsibilities regularly assigned to one person?

What is the duties and responsibilities involved in a particular job called?

What is a collection of duties and responsibilities which are given together to an individual employee is called?