Which perspective views the mind as an information processing system?

Memory: Storage center. Information is stored in long-term memory and processed and used by short-term memory. All knowledge is stored in long-term memory.

Thinking: A high-level cognitive function. Information from perception and memory is used to make decisions, to reason and to make deductions.

Language: A high-level output stage of cognition. Often, the results of thinking need to be acted upon in terms of speaking or writing.

The information processing approach is a psychological model focused on the ongoing development of human cognition and Cognitive Psychology. It is the thought that the human mind processes many different types of intelligence when it is received, alternative to responding exclusively to stimulation based on various events occurring concurrently in the mind. This notion is consistent with behavioral learning, providing that cognition is intact, and also where development and maturity over the course of time is concerned. This model provides that people examine the environment they are exposed to in order to collect, develop, and retain memory for the short-term or for long-term storage. Information development allows for future retrieval and continued learning analogous to building-blocks for further development. This article provides an exploration of various aspects of the information processing approach and its theoretical development historically, and it addresses appropriate case-study responses, relevant treatment models and their impact, helpful assessments, and possible ethical, legal, and forensic case formulation issues.

Mental Process: A Brief Theoretical and Historical Review

According to David, Miclea, and Opre (2004), Cognitive Psychology endeavors the complex task of understanding processes in the mind that are driven by thought. Humans autonomously think and behave in a disparate manner and this diversity adds to what has been a long-standing debate that has plagued psychological professionals, as they do not believe that there is one approach that effectively interprets the numerous ways people act or think that could represent a definitive standard (David et al., 2004). George Miller was recognized for the conception of information processing in 1956, an assertion that the mind strategically moves information by receipt of stimulation but can only do so in a limited capacity (Thadani, 2018). Miller’s efforts were fundamental to Cognitive Psychology, and throughout history, many psychological theorists have worked to develop related models in consideration of this approach to try to legitimize their ideas regarding how the mind processes information. Some examples follow:

Working memory (WM). From Mcleod (2012), Baddeley et al. (1974), offered the WM model as a replacement to short-term memory. The WM model, which also represents short-term memory, provides that within the human mind, there are several systems which process different kinds of information. The WM model seems to align well with Cognitive Psychology and covers a more comprehensive scope that considers and describes central executive functioning as being the boss of WM (McLeod, 2012). In accordance with the WM model, central executive functioning distributes intellect to the phonological-loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad for verbal and visual information respectively, and it is responsible for problem-solving and other cognitive functions (Adams, Nguyen, & Cowan, 2018). WM is perhaps one of the most influential theories of today and is focused on matters of attention and control (Baddeley, n.d.).

Piaget’s cognitive development theory. According to Scott and Cogburn (2019), Jean Piaget was notably most recognized for the Cognitive Development Theory (CDT), which considers biological maturation and interaction in developmental stages as a way to think about the way humans process information. The four stages of CDT are: (a) the sensorimotor stage lasting from birth-two years old; (b) the preoperational stage lasting from two–six years old; (c) the concrete operational stage lasting from six–11 years old; and (d) the formal operational period lasting from 11 years and older (Scott & Cogburn, 2019). Piaget claimed there was a presence of significant variances between the way children think versus the way adults think logically and was more focused on concept development and fundamental learning progression versus the measurement of intelligence.

Each of these models highlight an example of an information processing approach which serves to help psychological professionals better understand how the human mind receives input as related to stimuli or exposure, processes storage to include coding and manipulation of input, as well as retention and output which produces a response to input and storage allowing for the retrieval of stored information (Mcleod, 2008). Understanding these aspects of the overall information processing approach provides a well-supported foundation of the complex problem that is understanding how humans think, learn, and develop.

A Clinical Case-Study: Presentation and Review

In this clinical case-study, a thirty-three-year-old female presents with a history of Child Physical Abuse (CPA) and Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). In reviewing this limited clinical history, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM–5) published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA; 2013), defines Child Physical and/or Psychological Abuse (CPA), in a section on page 715 called ‘Other Conditions’, but does not consider them mental disorders; rather, they affect mental disorders (Kaplan, 2014). CPA is listed in the DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria under 995.54 (T74.12XA) for Subsequent Encounters accordingly, and is defined similarly to all other relevant conditions listed in this section as being the ‘nonaccidental’ physical injury to a child not limited to a parent, which is considered child abuse regardless of intent. PTSD is listed in the DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria under 309.81 (F43.10) as a complex disorder requiring direct-qualifying vulnerability or introduction to traumatic events according to Criterion A as amended, and it has a requisite that the event experienced be a death threat, severe injury, physical harm, sexual assault, or attack (Pai, Suris, & North, 2017).

According to the DSM-5, individuals diagnosed with PTSD are 80% more likely to present with comorbid mental disorders, and of significant importance, it is noted that PTSD and Major Neurocognitive Disorder have some overlapping symptoms with a high probability of comorbidity (APA, 2013). Furthermore, the DSM-5 outlines that individuals with PTSD experience high levels of disability and impaired functioning (self-referential processing, developmental emotional and autobiographical memory, educational, social attachment, and interpersonal processing, attention bias to threat and fear dysregulation, occupational, and physical) similar to the results of those experiencing CPA. There are many issues to consider given this adult female’s historical clinical diagnosis such as personal history and account, prior diagnostics, prior pharmacological and therapeutic treatments, current support network, and prior mental health and medical records; however, having been provided only a finite history, potential concerns are addressed throughout to provide a heightened understanding of the symptoms of PTSD and its impact on executive functioning and the information processing model of learning.

This adult female suffered CPA over some unknown period of time during childhood and this means that there was dysfunction within the primary support group according to the DSM-5 (APA, 2013). Prolonged exposure to possible child maltreatment, neglect, physical, sexual, and/or psychological abuse are some issues this female may be struggling with, and which may have subsequently led to the symptoms and diagnosis of PTSD. Tezel, Kișlak, and Boysan (2015), outline that early traumatic experiences on psychological well-being result in negative influences and this has been recognized and well-documented for some time. This research supports that the clinical history in this case-study can pose ongoing detrimental impressions such as worsening psychosomatic health issues. Additionally, the authors outline that adults who experienced trauma in their childhood suffer from undesirable images of themselves, seemingly antecedent of poor self-functioning abilities (Tezel et al., 2015).

These chronic conditions and disorders are independently complex; however, when combined, the impact on functional thinking can be catastrophic, causing pathological suppression in the areas of development and motivation, and can bring about personality and psychiatric pathology such as a generalized delusional belief system (Childress, 2015). From Fenster, Lebois, Ressler, and Suh (2018), and in review of the DSM-5, Criterion D outlines adverse and worsening changes in behavior post trauma including memory impairment, decreasing interest in activities that were once gratifying, abrogation or social-detachment and unfavorable moods, as well as executive functioning deficits which can include interruptions with sleep and concentration, reckless behavior, faltering emotional dysregulation, impulse control, functional, and emotional instability (Fenster et al., 2018).

Taft, Marshall, Schumm, Panuzio, and Holtzworth-Munroe (2008), cover the impact of PTSD symptoms as linked to familial maltreatment variables, socio-informational processing deficiency and physical or psychodynamic relationship violence. This research ties into this case-study, as the adult female presents with CPA, which is a clear indicator that familial maltreatment of some form was experienced within the family unit. Though not enough information is provided to determine the extent of CPA and who perpetrated it, the adult female has been previously diagnosed with Chronic PTSD, and this research outlines some possible effects which may be relevant, notwithstanding gender differences, if further evaluation provides that CPA and Chronic PTSD are a proper diagnosis. From this research, a bivariate analysis study was conducted including one hundred and sixty four men and their partners. It is not surprising to find that violent male partners reported more experience with child abuse and violence than did the nonviolent men. Further, this study found consistencies with Dodge et al. (1995), which highlights that maltreatment as a child leads to aggressiveness, and it has been argued that children who are maltreated have a heightened awareness or perception of threat “placing them at increased risk for information processing deficits and aggression (Crittenden & Ainsworth, 1989)” (Taft et al., 2008, p. 644).

According to Asscher, Van der Put, and Stams (2015), gender differences are present in CPA. The authors note that females are more likely to experience familial maltreatment such as physical, psychological, and/or sexual abuse and neglect, and as it relates to such abuse, females were more likely to commit misdemeanors and violence against others. From this research, the association between such experiences in childhood is significantly tied to the development of delinquent behaviors as a result of emotional impairment and dysregulation, which is relevant to the diagnostics outlined in this case-study respectively. Additionally, according to Tolin and Foa (2006), while males are exposed to more traumatic situations, females have a higher diagnostic rate and are more likely to meet criteria for diagnosis. Further, the DSM-5 supports that PTSD is more prevalent in females throughout life-span, and exposure to traumatic events such as CPA increases the risk for PTSD which is strongly associated with thoughts and/or attempts of suicide (APA, 2013).

Neuroscientific Circuitry in PTSD: Aspects of Information Processing

As previously mentioned, WM is one of the most influential approaches to information processing theoretically, but from a neuroscience perspective, WM consists of multiple independent and integrative components which are responsible for operating the flow of information through the brain (Chai, Abd Hamid, & Abdullah, 2018). From this research, neuroscientific knowledge of the brains entire functional capabilities is crucial in understanding WM as divided. Of consideration and relative to this case-study, and how WM is impacted in the presence of PTSD, are four key elements which represent the complex functions of WM:

Visuo-spatial sketchpad. This component represents memory associated with visual and spatial relationships and the capacity to contrast and compare things or objects. This aspect of information processing is related to this case-study as it affects involuntary, intrusive or traumatic images related to perceived events or flashbacks which are frequently reported by subjects with PTSD and are common in many mental disorders according to growing empirical research (Brewin, Gregory, Lipton, & Burgess, 2010). From this research, autobiographical memories tend to be altered pending recency and observance. With this deficiency present in many mental health disorders, it is plausible to consider similar effects related to the condition of CPA in this case-study.

Phonological-loop. This component represents verbal memory process which manages auditory intelligence. This process has two parts (a) phonological storage, which retains everything one hears; and (b) articulatory, for the purposes of repetition. According to the review by Aupperle, Melrose, Murray, and Martin (2011), auditory attention abilities decrease when PTSD and other mental disorders are present with deficit symptoms correlating directly to the severity of PTSD. Bremner (2006), notes that studies suggest early abuse trauma with associated PTSD resulted in deficits in verbal declarative memory which is something worth testing in this adult female for these reasons.

Central executive system. This component is considered the control center which manages the overall distribution of information to the visuo-spatial sketchpad and the phonological-loop and is the component of WM, the speed of information processing and inhibition, as well as abstract reasoning (Irigaray et al., 2013). From this research, six studies were conducted, four (66.7%) of these studies found that the effects of maltreatment on cognitive functioning in children, “is associated with attention deficits, impairment of executive functions such as problem solving, abstract reasoning, and word naming, planning, working memory, inhibition, mental flexibility, memory, visual-spatial function, visual-motor integration and language” (Irigaray et al., 2013, p. 382). Additionally, as it relates to this case-study, the authors point out that children exposed to abuse or maltreatment experience impaired intelligence, undesirable academic performance, and learning and memory disabilities with the presence of global cognitive deficiency.

Episodic buffer. This was introduced as the fourth component, it combines North American and European works and concludes that the episodic buffer links to the executive functioning system and stores visual and verbal information, binding them into episodes that are responsible for conscious awareness (Baddeley, 2000). In Irigaray et al. (2013), the studies reviewed show a consistent impairment in verbal episodic memory and overall executive functioning in the presence of PTSD, which is what the adult female in this case-study has been diagnosed with.

Diagnostic Impact of PTSD: Conditions, Disorders and Information Processing

As discussed, the adult female in this case-study most likely experiences symptoms of Chronic PTSD as a result of CPA which can include physical pain, hypervigilance or arousal, hypertension, anxiety, stress and more, which may be psychosomatic in nature and concurrent or subsequent to cognitive decline (McFarlane, 2010). Empirical research strongly supports that where mental health disorders are present, disorders related to stress and anxiety such as PTSD and depression can cause difficulties with everyday mental operations. From Weber (2008), Kolb (1987), defined a two-factor learning theory asserting that the development of PTSD is a result of both extreme classical and operant conditioning of emotional numbing, avoidance and withdrawal from traumatic events allowing for habitual and discriminatory learning and perception (Weber, 2008). From this research, Kolb (1987), believed that a dysfunction in cellular processes explained the impact of traumatic events on learning in PTSD, and that a heightened sensitivity to such events perpetuated consequences affecting the disruption of executive systems.

Similar to the adult female in this case-study, patients that have been formally diagnosed with PTSD show an increase in certain chemicals such as cortisol and norepinephrine as a response to trauma or stress, a potential result of enduring traumatic memory (Bremner, 2006). According to Bremner (2006), patients with PTSD secondary to CPA, were found to have deficits in verbal, not visual memory function based on neuropsychological testing. Aupperle et al. (2011), conducted a review investigating executive functioning with the presence of PTSD which highlights disruptions in attention regulation, and points out that there is a significant amount of research surrounding executive impairment. From this research, a nice way to sum up the way PTSD impacts information processing in WM, is that when a person is stressed or traumatized, the mind temporarily refocuses or alters areas of concentration accordingly, analogous to an avoidance strategy possibly based on information-overload. The authors discuss the relationship between treatment and PTSD and the impact comorbid disorders have on cognitive functioning, and it is important to note that in one study reviewed in this research, attention, executive functioning, and memory are considered risk factors for the development of PTSD, which has consistently been correlated with negative emotive stimuli and hypervigilance in bias for threats, with disengagement being a primary contributor to executive dysfunction and attentional influence (Aupperle et al., 2011).

As discussed, learning and memory are directly impacted by the severity of PTSD symptoms. Conditions and disorders such as those presented in this case-study can cause deficiencies both cognitively and emotionally, and memory and attention deficits can have an impact on the subject’s ability to learn (Aupperle et al., 2011). Disorders that occur together or are accompanied by other underlying mental conditions often result in emotional dysregulation with a distinct, consistent failure to control impulses, and executive dysfunction is a key component of most mental disorders (Duijkers, Vissers, & Egger, 2016). From this research and supported throughout, it is noted that in most mental health disorders, the ability to function in daily life is damaged, with cognitive deficiencies present in planning, stress or emotional regulation, cognitive control and the ability to focus or concentrate.

Cognitive Testing and Assessments for Case-Study Use

A battery of available testing tools can determine pre-morbid and post-morbid processing speed and intellectual capability, and information processing preferences or tendencies have frequently appeared on the Stroop color-naming task by subjects' performance (Thrasher & Dalgleish, 1994). According to Stroop (1992), a gender difference in naming colors is attributed to a difference in education. From this research, support is noted by “all who have studied color naming” and “that naming color may be more common with females than males” (Stroop, 1992, p.21). According to Cisler et al. (2011), the emotional Stroop task (EST), highlights some of the core deficiencies in PTSD, the test would be helpful in this case-study because it represents a measure of executive functioning and it would also be useful because the subject is an adult female presenting with Chronic PTSD and other conditional considerations.

Cognitive and neuropsychological tests and assessments are used to measure cognitive and intellectual, learning and memory, attention and vigilance, processing speed, and executive functioning abilities which are largely accepted (Institute of Medicine (U.S.), 2015). The Institute of Medicine (U.S.) (2015), outlines assessment options for the purposes of determining disability status as related to general cognitive and intellectual ability, and the authors note that for cases with specific deficits in cognition, such as those associated with neurological illness, a clinical or neurological psychologist is needed for skilled evaluation. From this well-supported research, a list of assessments provides insight as to how each test may be applicable and useful to this case-study: (a) the wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS), is used to determine processing speed, mental efficiency, cognitive functioning and intelligence, and learning and memory deficits; (b) the rey-osterreith test is used for the assessment of visuo-spatial memory and attention, planning and WM, as well as executive functions; (c) the paced auditory serial addition test is used for assessing deficits in vigilance and attention; (d) the trail making test (TMT-A) is used for deficits in speed of processing; and (e) the trail making test (TMT-B) is used for assessing executive function. Executive functioning refers to an array of mental processes, and the authors note that because of this, it may be impossible to use a single measure to assess it. Collectively, these are just some of the assessments available to help determine areas of deficiency in WM, focus and attention in this case-study. The authors also note that medical testing such as neuroimaging may also be helpful.

Treatment Models: Effects on PTSD and Comorbidities

There are a many evidence-based treatment options, and there are some upcoming types of treatment for PTSD. Considering the use of emerging treatment types is important even though they have not yet been validated because they are useful as additional tools for use with treatments that are well-established (Lancaster, Teeters, Gros, & Back, 2016).

McClean and Foa (2014), describe PTSD as a “chronic and disabling disorder characterized by intrusive re-experiencing symptoms and avoidance-behaviors” among other significant symptoms (p. 231). This research outlines an overview of empirical treatment options available for the treatment of PTSD such as CBT, (a type of psychotherapy that treats problems by thought modification), and it focuses on Prolonged Exposure Therapy (PE), which is an empirical treatment option providing repetitive exposure to thought, specifically, as it is related to trauma to decrease impact. The authors note that both treatment types are proven to decrease the symptoms of PTSD, and assert that sustainability is represented as “two factors: a.) avoidance of thoughts and feelings related to the trauma and avoidance of trauma reminders; and b.) the presence of unhelpful, distorted beliefs such as "the world is extremely dangerous," and "I am extremely incompetent" (Mclean & Foa, 2014, p.232). According to the authors, therapeutic sessions for such treatment generally last one and a half hours, and eight to 15 sessions are delivered one to two times per week and are controlled by a clinical professional. These sessions are planned and focused until the third session has been completed, then, in the remainder of the sessions, there is a standardized schedule including homework, and the last session ends with a summary of the process focused on what the patient has learned, avoidance of future symptoms is also a point of focus (McClean & Foa, 2014). McLean and Foa (2014), point out that although PE is generally effective, if a patient does not engage in, attend, or finish the intended treatment plan, a good result will not be met. In review, this treatment is an effective initial PTSD treatment option and it is also the “golden standard” for the remediation of PTSD (Rausch, Eftekhari, & Ruzek, 2012, p.685).

According to Jarero, Amaya, Givaudan, and Miranda (2013), conducted a project focused on Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR), an available treatment option that uses corresponding eye movements with traumatic memory processing to elicit calm and better control of emotion was concluded for participants feeling the acute onset of traumatic exposure. The sample included 39 participants who were selected randomly, each presenting with trauma in this trial developed for the purposes of examining the effectiveness of EMDR in the treatment of PTSD. In the project, randomly selected participants completed two, 90 minute therapy sessions described as EMDR-PROPARA respectively, while the remaining participants received counseling only. When the project was finished, results in only those participants who received EMDR-PROPARA showed immediate benefits as was evidenced by scores from the participants Short PTSD Rating Review Assessment (SPRINT), and a consistent decline in symptoms at their three month visit was present. Further research for the validation of efficacy was recommended by the authors. The SPRINT measures treatment progress and can similarly be used in this case-study to assess this adult female’s progress throughout treatment along with the use of EMDR as a possible treatment option for PTSD.

“According to the National Institute of Mental Health (2016), treatment options are primarily psychotherapy and pharmacological therapy such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibiters (SSRIs)” (Blankenship, 2017, p. 276). Blankenship (2017), provides a meta-analysis including over 28,000 studies relative to PTSD, several which outline effective treatment options for PTSD including SIT and EMDR, as well as PE, Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT), (a type of therapy believed to alter traumatic thought to elicit a positive emotional response to trauma). Within this research, researchers consistently recommended the use of these treatment options for the efficacious treatment of patients. In this meta-analysis, detail is not available to provide an in-depth look at associated studies; however, a collective comparison between these treatment models is provided for a better understanding.

This review of several different types of treatments for individuals suffering PTSD supports that PE as a treatment option is the golden standard in treating Chronic PTSD (Rausch et al., 2012). This scientific treatment model developed by Dr. Edna Foa and Dr. Elizabeth Hembree, who designed the training method, has proven to be effective in calming PTSD and changing behavior via imaginal and in vivo exposures (Rausch et al., 2012).

Ethical, legal and forensic issues in case-study formulation. According to Davies, Black, Bentley, and Nagi (2013), while case formulation in forensics is becoming of great interest within the psychological community, and it is a crucial skill to have for any forensic psychologist, there are several factors that need to be considered where diligence is concerned not only by clinicians, but also by individual’s who may be averse to therapeutic engagement in psychotherapy. From this research, “amongst therapists, Chadwick et al. (2003) found that developing a formulation improved the therapists’ perception of therapeutic alliance with patients, which increased the therapist’s confidence in the therapy being provided” (Davies et al., 2013, p. 307). The authors express concerns with forensic case formulation due to empirical limitations, validation and reliability where there are multiple clinicians or practitioners involved with a client, the pressure in reviewing potentially extensive historical data with integrity, and formulation as generally, a summary of problems presented versus the functioning of an individual and there is concern surrounding the integration of information producing mixed results which may not meet empirical standards (Davies et al., 2013).

Davies et al. (2013), contend that a properly formulated case combines data and administers an interpretation, provides treatment management, and predicts anticipated conclusion, while guiding the remedial relationship as intended. It is clearly noted that research on the efficacy of forensic formulation is limited. Barrett (2013), also notes that clinical practitioners struggle with receiving objective data versus receiving subjective experience.

From Ells and Lombart (2011), case formulation historically spans psychotherapy, from psychodynamic theory which was introduced by Freud in the mid-50’s, and in which there are many subsets such as self-psychology, structural theory, dividing self-thought into three processes (a) id; (b) ego; and (c) superego, notably highlighting a rigid intrinsic need to consider mental representations of self or others with a split or black and white perspective, i.e., good or bad, etc.; with such disposition generally spanning from childhood events where there has been the presence of CPA and other abuses, to cognitive, behavioral and humanistic theories respectively (Ells & Lombart, 2011). From this research and well-aligned with this and case-study, it is significant to include that in the mid-twentieth century, scientists focused on "understanding and influencing the fundamental processes by which individual humans attend to, learn, remember, forget, transfer, adapt, relearn and otherwise engage with the challenges of life in development (Mahoney, 1991, p. 75)” (Ellis & Lombart, 2011, p.10).

General factors that are of ethical and legal consideration are ethnicity, age, race and gender. According to Liddell and Johnson (2016), socio-cultural differences should always be considered; however, they note that there is very little empirical work considering the influence of culture on PTSD. Additionally, the American Psychological Association’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA; 2017), sets forth the principles of beneficence and non-maleficence in an effort to encourage good practice and avoid harm. According to Barrett (2013), dilemmas in ethics should be properly reviewed and followed up strategically with competent support for moving forward for low risk practice. Also, as outlined, documentation is key (APA, 2017). The main ethical issue seems to persistently stem from inconsistent approaches which can lead to harmful or inappropriate treatment as a result of poor clinical decisions which may include several professionals. Chezum (2016), points out that practitioners must strive for data integrity, diligence in competence, ethical and legal compliance, and by the use of systemic, well-established evidence collaboratively to ensure proper regard for ethics and the rule of law.

Summary and Conclusion

This article explored various aspects of the information processing approach and its theoretical development historically, and it addressed appropriate case-study responses, relevant treatment models and their impact, helpful assessments, and possible ethical, legal and forensic case formulation issues. In conclusion, research integrity is critical, as is properly understanding the history involved with information processing theory and its evolvement. Contributions made by theorists who recognized that while the human mind may be very complex, which poses challenges in objectivity in measuring it, figuring out mental process is essential (McLeod, 2008). Traumatic experiences resulting in comorbidities such as CPA and Chronic PTSD requires skilled evaluation, diagnosis and treatment in consideration of the DSM-5 as amended, and this would not be possible if it was not for the historical works of theorists progressing the information processing approach in an ongoing effort to inform the understanding of Cognitive Psychology. With the adult female in this case-study exposed to abuse in childhood, it is likely this individual would experience poor performance on tasks meant to assess WM, attention, verbal episodic memory, executive functioning, and long-term developmental issues are most likely present due to potential adverse effects of CPA and Chronic PTSD on cognitive functioning (Irigaray et al., 2013).

Mcleod (2008), outlines the Cognitive Psychology approach to understanding the human mind as it relates to information processing, as being analogous to the activities of a computer, noting that while the mind and computers are alike in terms of information processing (inputs, outputs, storage systems, etc.), abatement does not consider the fact that humans are emotional unlike artificial intelligence (AI). In other words, AI must be extrinsically controlled and manipulated to receive information; whereas, intrinsic motivation for response to exposure and stimuli operates the human mind.

References

Adams, E. J., Nguyen, A. T., & Cowan, N. (2018). Theories of working memory: Differences in definition, degree of modularity, role of attention, and purpose. Language, Speech, & Hearing Services in Schools, 49(3), 340. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_LSHSS-17-0114

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.

American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2002, Amended June 1, 2010, and January 1, 2017). Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx

Asscher, J. J., Van der Put, C. E., & Stams, G. J. (2015). Gender differences in the impact of abuse and neglect victimization on adolescent offending behavior. Journal of Family Violence, 30, 215–225. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4315896/pdf/10896_2014_Article_9668.pdf

Aupperle, R. L., Melrose, A. J., Stein, M. B., & Paulus, M. P. (2011). Executive function and PTSD: Disengaging from trauma. Neuropharmacology, 62(2), 686–694. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4719148/

Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(11), 417-423. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2

Baddeley, A. (n.d.). The origins of the central executive [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/working%20memory.html

Barrett, M.S. (2013). Ethical issues and decision-making in the treatment of trauma [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from https://dhss.delaware.gov/dsamh/files/si2013_ethicalissuesandtrauma.pdf

Blankenship, D. M. (2017). Five efficacious treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: An empirical review. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 39(4), 275. https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.39.4.01

Bremner J. D. (2006). Traumatic stress: Effects on the brain. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 8(4), 445–461. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181836/

Brewin, C.R., Gregory, J.D., Lipton, M., & Burgess, N. (2010). Intrusive images in psychological disorders: Characteristics, neural mechanisms, and treatment implications. Psychological Review, 117(1), 210-232. Retrieved from https://europepmc.org/backend/ptpmcrender.fcgi?accid=PMC2834572&blobtype=pdf

Chai, W. J., Abd Hamid, A. I., & Abdullah, J. M. (2018). Working memory from the psychological and neurosciences perspectives: A review. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 401. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00401

Chezum, L. (2016). Ethical challenges for psychology in the justice system: Ethical dilemmas faced by forensic psychologists in the criminal justice system. American Psychology-Law Society. APA Div. 4: Washington, DC: Retrieved from https://www.apadivisions.org/division-41/publications/newsletters/news/2016/02/legal

Childress, C.A. (2015). An attachment-based model of parental alienation: Foundations (pp. 312-313). Claremont, CA.: Oaksong Press. Retrieved from http://www.drcachildress.org/asp/admin/getFile.asp?RID=183&TID=6&FN=pdf

Cisler, J. M., Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Adams, T. G., Jr, Babson, K. A., Badour, C. L., & Willems, J. L. (2011). The emotional stroop task and posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(5), 817–828. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3132173/pdf/nihms284735.pdf

David, D., Miclea, M., & Opre, A. (2004). The information processing approach to the human mind: Basics and beyond. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60(4), 353–368. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10250

Davies, J., Black, S., Bentley, N., & Nagi, C. (2013). Forensic case formulation: Theoretical, ethical and practical issues. Criminal Behaviour And Mental Health: CBMH, 23(4), 304–314. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.1882

Duijkers, J. C., Vissers, C. T., & Egger, J. I. (2016). Unraveling executive functioning in dual diagnosis. Frontiers in Psychology, 7(979). Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4923259/

Ells, T.D., & Lombart, K.G. (2011). Theoretical and evidence-based approaches to case formulation. In Sturmey, P. & McMurron, M. (Ed.) Forensic Case Formulation (1st ed., pp. 4-32). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tracy_Eells2/publication/229709690_Theoretical_and_Evidence-Based_Approaches_to_Case_Formulation/links/5ab27fa6458515ecebeebf23/Theoretical-and-Evidence-Based-Approaches-to-Case-Formulation.pdf

Fenster, R. J., Lebois, L., Ressler, K. J., & Suh, J. (2018). Brain circuit dysfunction in post-traumatic stress disorder: From mouse to man. Nature reviews. Neuroscience, 19(9), 535–551. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6148363/

Institute of Medicine (U.S.). (2015). Psychological testing in the service of disability determination. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. Retrieved from https://eds-b-ebscohost-com.libauth.purdueglobal.edu/eds/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzk5MTExNV9fQU41?sid=f167ad2b-7ad7-4fbb-be59-a98a3c3fd341@sessionmgr101&vid=1&format=EB&rid=1

Irigaray, T. Q., Pacheco, J. B., Grassi-Oliveira, R., Fonseca, R. P., Leite, J. C. de C., & Kristensen, C. H. (2013). Child maltreatment and later cognitive functioning: A systematic review. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 26(2), 376-387. Retrieved from http://www.scielo.br/pdf/prc/v26n2/18.pdf

Jarero, N.I., Amaya, C., Givaudan, M., and Alaide, M. (2013). EMDR individual protocol for paraprofessional use: A randomized controlled trial with first responders. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research 7(2):55-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/1933-3196.7.2.55

Kaplan, S. L. (2014, Feb 1). DSM-5 and child neglect and abuse: Other conditions that may be a focus of clinical attention. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/your-child-does-not-have-bipolar-disorder/201402/dsm-5-and-child-neglect-and-abuse-1

Lancaster, C. L., Teeters, J. B., Gros, D. F., & Back, S. E. (2016). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Overview of evidence-based assessment and treatment. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 5(11), 105. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5126802/

Liddell, B. J., & Jobson, L. (2016). The impact of cultural differences in self-representation on the neural substrates of posttraumatic stress disorder. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7, 30464. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4908066/

McClean, C.P., & Foa, E.B. (2014). The use of prolonged exposure therapy to help patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. Future Medicine Ltd. 11(2), 233-241. Retrieved from https://www.openaccessjournals.com/articles/the-use-of-prolonged-exposure-therapy-to-help-patients-with-posttraumatic-stress-disorder.pdf

McFarlane A. C. (2010). The long-term costs of traumatic stress: intertwined physical and psychological consequences. World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 9(1), 3–10. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2816923/

McLeod, S. A. (2008, Oct 24). Information processing. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/information-processing.html

McLeod, S. A. (2012). Working memory. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/working%20memory.html

Pai, A., Suris, A. M., & North, C. S. (2017). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the DSM-5: Controversy, change, and conceptual considerations. Behavioral Sciences (2076-328X), 7(1), bs7010007. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs7010007

Rausch, S.M., Eftekhari, A. & Ruzek, J. (2012). Review of exposure therapy: A gold standard for PTSD treatment. The Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development 49(5):679-88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1682/JRRD.2011.08.0152

Scott, H.K., Cogburn, M. P. (2019). In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448206/

Stroop, J.R. (1992). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 121(1), 15-23. Retrieved from https://psych.hanover.edu/classes/Cognition/papers/stroop%201933.pdf

Taft, C. T., Marshall, A. D., Schumm, J. A., Panuzio, J., & Holtzworth-Munroe, A. (2008). Family-of-origin maltreatment, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, social information processing deficits, and relationship abuse perpetration. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117(3), 637-646. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/angel/Downloads/taftetal2008b%20(2).pdf

Tezel, K.F., Kișlak, T.Ş., & Boysan, M. (2015). Relationships between childhood traumatic experiences, early maladaptive schemas and interpersonal styles. Archives of Neuropsychiatry / Noropsikiatri Arsivi, 52(3), 226–232. https://doi.org/10.5152/npa.2015.7118McLeod, S. A. (2008, Oct. 24). Information processing. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/information-processing.html

Thadani, R. (2018, May 7). A well-illustrated overview on the information processing theory. Retrieved from https://psychologenie.com/information-processing-theory

Thrasher, S.M., Dalgleish, W.Y. (1994). Information processing in post-traumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research Therapy, 32(2), 247-254. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)90119-8

Tolin, D.F., & Foa, E.B. (2006). Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 132(6), 959-992. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/bul-1326959.pdf

Weber D. L. (2008). Information processing bias in post-traumatic stress disorder. The Open Neuroimaging Journal, 2, 29–51. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2714576/

Which perspective views the mind as an information processing?

What field of psychology sees the human mind as information processing?

What perspective focuses on the processing of information?

What type of theory is information processing?