How did national parks differ from national monuments in the early twentieth century?
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Abstract The rise of support for national parks in the United States after 1900 occurred amid a transnational circulation of information on the apparent destruction of-or imminent threat to -nature on a global level. Arguments for creating and protecting national parks included preservation of "wild" areas, proto-ecological ideas, and social reformist and economic utilitarian pressures during the Progressive Era. Advocacy for park protection as it developed to 1916 reflected this complex cluster of ideas rather than any clearly articulated concept of wilderness. It was influenced by international sensibilities on the social construction of nature and its putative preservation at the moment of industrialization in Europe and the American Northeast, the intrusion of mechanization into the countryside and, outside the metropolitan centres of the Euro-American world, high imperialism that exposed widespread destruction of nature in Europe's colonies. The case of the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society (ASHPS), an elite organization that combined national park, public-park and human-heritage advocacy in a continuum of values, is examined as a transnational conduit for and shaper of these socially constructed ideas in the United States, and as a neglected aspect of Progressive Era development of national parks. Show
Journal Information Journal of American Studies seeks to critique and interrogate the notion of "America", pursuing this through international perspectives on the history, literature, politics and culture of the United States. The Journal publishes original peer-reviewed research and analysis by established and emerging scholars throughout the world, considering US history, politics, literature, institutions, economics, film, popular culture, geography, sociology and related subjects in domestic, continental, hemispheric, and global contexts. Its expanded book review section offers in-depth analysis of recent American Studies scholarship to promote further discussion and debate. The journal is intended not only for students and scholars, but also for general readers with an interest in the United States. For current issues of the journal, please visit http://www.journals.cambridge.org/ams Publisher Information Cambridge University Press (www.cambridge.org) is the publishing division of the University of Cambridge, one of the world’s leading research institutions and winner of 81 Nobel Prizes. Cambridge University Press is committed by its charter to disseminate knowledge as widely as possible across the globe. It publishes over 2,500 books a year for distribution in more than 200 countries. Cambridge Journals publishes over 250 peer-reviewed academic journals across a wide range of subject areas, in print and online. Many of these journals are the leading academic publications in their fields and together they form one of the most valuable and comprehensive bodies of research available today. For more information, visit http://journals.cambridge.org. Rights & Usage This item is part of a JSTOR Collection. Our National Monuments are an integral part of Singapore’s built heritage, which the National Heritage Board (NHB) preserves and promotes for posterity. They are monuments and sites that are accorded the highest level of protection in Singapore.
The PadangThe Padang (‘field’ in Malay) is one of the oldest open spaces in Singapore and part of the area reserved for government use after the establishment of the British settlement in 1819.
Fort SilosoLocated on the western tip of Pulau Blakang Mati (known today as Sentosa Island), Fort Siloso was one of the many coastal fortifications built around the 19th century by the British and remains the most intact fortification in Singapore. The Fort was built on Mount Siloso, where the name “Siloso” is said to be derived from a Malayan word meaning “rock”, a possible reference to the rock outcrops that once stood at the western entrance to the present-day Keppel Harbour.
Former Thong Chai Medical InstitutionHome to the first free traditional Chinese medical clinic for the poor in Singapore, the Former Thong Chai Medical Institution testifies to the Chinese pioneers’ spirit of mutual assistance and their generosity towards the poor and needy.
Armenian Apostolic Church of Saint Gregory the IlluminatorSingapore's oldest Christian church was the spiritual home of the small but influential Armenian community living here during the colonial period and continues to serve as a reminder of their contributions to the development of Singapore over the years.
Saint Andrew's CathedralSaint Andrew's Cathedral is Singapore’s oldest surviving Anglican place of worship and is the seat of the Anglican bishop of Singapore. The magnificent edifice has stood the test of time, bearing witness to the spread of Anglicanism in the region. It also testifies to the contributions of the local Scottish, English, and Indian communities to the growth and development of colonial Singapore.
Former Telok Ayer Market (now known as Lau Pa Sat)Affectionately known as Lau Pa Sat (老巴刹, ‘Old Market’) by generations of Singaporeans, the Former Telok Ayer Market was one of Singapore’s oldest markets. The iconic structure is the only survivor of the five markets that used to serve residents living in Singapore’s town area.
Thian Hock KengThian Hock Keng (天福宫, ‘Palace of Heavenly Happiness’) is one of Singapore’s oldest Hokkien temples. It is located near Al-Abrar Mosque, Former Nagore Dargah, and Telok Ayer Chinese Methodist Church, standing on what used to be the shoreline of Telok Ayer Basin.
Sri Mariamman TempleTogether with Jamae Mosque, Sri Mariamman Temple – Singapore’s oldest Hindu temple – is an enduring icon on South Bridge Road which is a part of Chinatown. Both monuments testify to the significant Tamil population that once lived in the vicinity, and are constant reminders of their contributions to Singapore’s development as a British colony.
Hajjah Fatimah MosqueHajjah Fatimah Mosque is one of the oldest mosques in Singapore, a rare example of one named after a woman. Its unique eclectic architecture stands out from other mosques in Singapore, especially with its distinctively European-style minaret, which tilts slightly. The mosque bears testimony to the once thriving Muslim communities living in the vicinity who made significant contributions particularly to colonial Singapore’s economy.
Cathedral of the Good ShepherdThe Cathedral of the Good Shepherd is Singapore's oldest Catholic place of worship and the seat of the local Roman Catholic archbishop. Not only does it bear testimony to the spread of Catholicism in the region, the edifice also serves as a reminder to the contributions of early Catholic missionaries to the fields of religion, architecture, and education in Singapore.
Former Nagore DargahErected by the Chulia community, this magnificent building testifies to their presence in Chinatown in the past and also to their contributions to early colonial Singapore's economy.
Al-Abrar MosqueLocated on Telok Ayer Street, Al-Abrar Mosque is one of Singapore’s oldest mosques. Also known as Chulia Mosque, the mosque serves as a constant reminder of the Chulia immigrants who once lived in the area and played a vital role in developing the budding economy of early colonial Singapore.
House of Tan Yeok NeeThe Chinese-style Former House of Tan Yeok Nee is the sole survivor of the ‘Four Grand Mansions’ that were built by Teochew towkays (businessmen) in late nineteenth-century Singapore. The former residence is a monument to the contributions of early Chinese immigrants, as well as the various groups of occupants who were committed to the welfare of people resident in Singapore.
Tan Si Chong SuThe history of Tan Si Chong Su (陈氏宗祠, ‘Ancestral Hall of the Tan Clan’) is inextricably linked to the influx of Chinese immigrants into Singapore during the late nineteenth century. It testifies to the contributions of the Chinese community to colonial Singapore’s growth and development.
Jamae MosqueJamae Mosque is one of the oldest mosques in Singapore and serves as a reminder of the considerably large population of Chulia immigrants who had settled in the Chinatown district and their crucial role in the development of colonial Singapore’s fledgling economy.
Sultan MosqueFormerly the royal mosque of the Sultan of Johor, Sultan Mosque represents the solidarity and unity of Muslims in Singapore. The impressive building serves as a reminder of the Malay royalty that was once housed in the nearby Istana Kampong Glam and the thriving Muslim communities living in the area during the British colonial period.
Saint George's ChurchFounded as a garrison church, this church bears witness to the area’s history during the colonial period as Tanglin Barracks, which was the General Headquarters of the British Far East Land Forces.
Hong San SeeHong San See was established by Hokkien immigrants from Nan’an County in Fujian Province, China. It exemplifies the spirit of solidarity and organisation of the early Hokkien community in Singapore and bears testimony to their contributions.
Sri Srinivasa Perumal TempleFormerly known as Sri Narasimha Perumal Temple, Sri Srinivasa Perumal Temple is the first Hindu temple in Singapore dedicated to Sri Perumal, the Hindu deity more commonly known as Vishnu. Even though the impressive structure standing today was built in the 1960s, the temple is one of Singapore’s oldest Hindu temples in terms of establishment.
Abdul Gafoor MosqueAbdul Gafoor Mosque's charming architecture stands out amidst the surrounding shophouses in the historic Little India district. The living monument testifies to the contributions of Tamil and Baweanese pioneers in the development of colonial Singapore.
Former Siong Lim Temple (now Lian Shan Shuang Lin Monastery)The traditional architecture of Lian Shan Shuang Lin Monastery stands out amidst the modern high-rise apartment blocks in the Toa Payoh neighbourhood. The monastery complex houses one of Singapore’s oldest Buddhist temples and testifies to the spread of Mahayana Buddhism in the region.
Raffles HotelRaffles Hotel is one of the most well-known luxury hotels in Singapore and the oldest surviving establishment of its kind on the island. It is a living witness to the boom in tourism in the late nineteenth- and early twentieth-centuries, and also testifies to the contributions of Singapore’s small but significant Armenian community during the early years of British Singapore.
Telok Ayer Chinese Methodist ChurchOriginally known as the Chinese Methodist Church, Telok Ayer Chinese Methodist Church was the first church established to cater exclusively to the spiritual needs of the Chinese Methodist community in Singapore. It bears testimony to the growth and development of the local Methodist Church and also serves as a reminder of the contributions of early Christian missionaries in Singapore.
Goodwood Park Hotel (Tower Block)The Tower Wing of the present-day Goodwood Park Hotel was home to the German Teutonia Club, one of the earliest European national clubs in Singapore. It is a prominent landmark in the Orchard area for its unique architecture. The charming structure serves as a reminder of the Germans’ contributions to trade in early colonial Singapore, and of the impact of the First World War on the local German community.
The Istana and Sri TemasekThe Istana is the official residence of the President of the Republic of Singapore. On its well-manicured grounds stand the Main Building (commonly called the Istana), Sri Temasek, Istana Villa, and The Lodge. The former two buildings are particularly significant: not only have they been graced by numerous local and foreign dignitaries through the years, they have also witnessed milestones and important events in Singapore’s history. Together, they represent the sovereignty of Singapore as an independent state.
Former City HallLocated in the heart of the Civic District, the Former City Hall served as an important government office in Singapore. The impressive building bears witness to Singapore’s colonial past and the Japanese Occupation (1942–1945), as well as to several milestones on its road to independence.
Victoria Theatre and Victoria Concert HallIn the heart of Singapore’s historic Civic District stand the magnificent Victoria Theatre and Victoria Concert Hall with the iconic clock tower. As two of Singapore’s oldest existing purpose-built performance venues, the twin buildings are often remembered as favourite locations for theatrical productions and concerts.
Former Supreme CourtAmidst the colonial buildings and skyscrapers of the Civic District rises the copper-green dome of the Former Supreme Court. Once housing the highest court in Singapore, the Former Supreme Court is situated next to the Former City Hall in front of the Padang. It is also the last grand Neoclassical building constructed during Singapore’s colonial era.
National Museum of SingaporeWith its wide façade and large dome, the National Museum of Singapore has been a prominent landmark on Stamford Road for over a century. It is Singapore’s oldest existing museum, devoted to the general history of Singapore. The grand edifice is a testament to Singapore’s role as a centre of academic research in the region since the nineteenth century.
Yueh Hai Ching TempleAlso known as Wak Hai Cheng Bio in Teochew, the temple serves as a reminder of the contributions of Teochew Chinese pioneers who arrived in Singapore shortly after the arrival of the British in 1819.
Maghain Aboth SynagogueLocated in the former Jewish neighbourhood, Maghain Aboth Synagogue is the oldest surviving synagogue in Southeast Asia. It is a living monument that bears witness to the contributions of the small but close-knit Jewish community in Singapore since the British colonial period.
Former Tao Nan School (now The Peranakan Museum)This was the first modern Chinese school in Singapore and one of the earliest of its kind in the Straits Settlements. The beautiful three-storey building is a testimony to the local Chinese community’s commitment to education and the modernisation of Chinese education in twentieth-century Singapore.
Chesed-El SynagogueChesed-El Synagogue bears witness to the Singapore Jewish community’s contributions to Singapore’s development since the British colonial period and is also a memorial to the prominent philanthropist Sir Manasseh Meyer.
Former Hill Street Police StationNicknamed the ‘Police Skyscraper’ in the past, the Former Hill Street Police Station is prominently located at the junction of Hill Street and River Valley Road. The building served as a police station and also housed accommodation for officers and their families. A monument to the police force in Singapore, the edifice was once the largest of its kind in Malaya.
Ying Fo Fui KunYing Fo Fui Kun exemplifies the spirit of solidarity within the early Hakka community and serves as a reminder of their contributions to Singapore’s development over the years.
Central Fire StationThe Central Fire Station is the oldest surviving fire station in Singapore and is a living monument to the local firefighting force.
Former Nanyang University Library and Administration Building, Memorial and ArchNanyang University (南洋大学), affectionately known as Nantah (南大), was the first Chinese-language university in Southeast Asia and the second university in Singapore. Not only do the Former Nanyang University Library and Administration Building, Memorial, and Arch serve as remembrances of the original Nantah, they also bear witness to the relentless efforts and contributions of the local Chinese community towards making tertiary education accessible to Chinese-speaking youth.
Chinese High School Clock Tower BuildingThe Chinese High School Clock Tower Building is the icon of the oldest Chinese-medium high school in Singapore and has been a visual landmark of Bukit Timah Road since its completion. It serves as a reminder of the local Chinese community’s commitment to quality education.
Prinsep Street Presbyterian ChurchPrinsep Street Presbyterian Church is one of Singapore’s oldest Presbyterian churches. Its unique façade stands out from the modern buildings surrounding it, serving as a reminder of the contributions of early Protestant missionaries in colonial Singapore, as well as the spread of Protestantism in the region. The church is also the birthplace of The Boys’ Brigade Movement in Singapore.
Former Admiralty HouseThe Former Admiralty House used to accommodate key military commanders based in Singapore. It bears testimony to the former Singapore Naval Base located in the vicinity and also embodies Singapore’s military history.
Tan Teck Guan BuildingTan Teck Guan Building testifies to the contributions of pioneers to medical education in Singapore, which in turn advanced the local medical service and encouraged the development of local tertiary education.
College of Medicine BuildingAs Singapore’s first purpose-built medical college, the College of Medicine Building bears witness to the development of local medical services, as well as the progress in Singapore’s tertiary education.
Former Cathay Building (now The Cathay)The Art Deco façade wall fronting the modern glass architecture of The Cathay is the remnant of what used to be Malaya’s tallest building. Previously known as Cathay Building, it was the first skyscraper and the first air-conditioned cinema in Singapore. While the Former Cathay Building was built as a venue for entertainment, it served a much more sombre purpose during the war years.
Church of Saints Peter and PaulThe Church of Saints Peter and Paul is one of the oldest Catholic churches in Singapore that catered to a predominantly Chinese congregation. Built more than a century ago, it stands today as a testimony to the spread of the Catholic faith and also to the contributions of Catholic missionaries to education in Singapore.
MacDonald HouseMacDonald House is perhaps most remembered as the target of a tragic bombing during the Indonesian-Malaysian Konfrontasi (Confrontation).
St Joseph's ChurchSaint Joseph’s Church was the headquarters of the Portuguese Mission in Singapore. The church was situated in what used to be the European town in colonial Singapore. The church edifice is not only a monument to the contributions of the Portuguese and Portuguese Eurasian communities, but also to the Catholic missionaries’ commitment to provide education for children.
Church of Our Lady of LourdesKnown simply as the Indian Church or Tamil Church in the past, the Church of Our Lady of Lourdes is one of Singapore’s oldest Catholic churches. It bears testimony to the spread of Catholicism in Singapore, especially to the growth of the Tamil Catholic community over the years.
Church of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin MaryThe Church of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary is one of the earliest Catholic churches built in the suburbs of Singapore. Over the years, the church has faithfully served the spiritual needs of the predominantly Teochew-speaking Catholics living in Hougang, which at a point in time outnumbered the non-Catholic community. It now stands as a living testament not only to the spread of Catholicism, but also to the many contributions of Catholic missionaries in nineteenth-century Singapore.
Tou Mu KungTou Mu Kung (斗母宫) is the oldest temple in Singapore dedicated to the Taoist deity Jiu Huang Ye (九皇爷, ‘Nine Emperors’ or ‘Ninth Emperor’). Besides serving the spiritual needs of both the Hokkien and Teochew communities in its vicinity, the temple also attracts huge crowds of devotees from all around the island, particularly during the grand festivities held in honour of Jiu Huang Ye during the ninth month of the lunar calendar.
Former Ford FactoryAs Ford Motor Company’s first automobile assembly plant in Southeast Asia, this building bore witness to the booming manufacturing industry in Singapore in the twentieth century. The building is also remembered as the location where the British unconditionally surrendered Singapore to the Japanese in 1942.
Church of St TeresaOriginally constructed for the spiritual needs of the Hokkien-speaking Catholics living in the town area, this magnificent edifice testifies to the religious and architectural contributions of Catholic missionaries, and also the growth of the local Chinese Catholic community in the early twentieth century.
Former Keng Teck Whay BuildingThe Former Keng Teck Whay Building building stands as a witness to the presence and contributions of the Hokkien Peranakans (Straits Chinese) in colonial Singapore and to the community spirit of mutual aid among the pioneers.
Former Command HouseThe stately Former Command House's role in Singapore’s military history was of paramount importance, especially at the dawn of the Second World War in Asia in the late 1930s and early 1940s.
Former St James Power StationThe Former Saint James Power Station was the first coal-fired power station on the island. While the building no longer produces electricity, it remains a standing monument to Singapore’s modernisation and urban development during the colonial era.
Bowyer BlockBowyer Block is a standing reminder of the marked improvements in medical facilities during the 1920s. It is also a memorial to those who had given their lives to public healthcare services in Singapore, and in particular, Dr John H. Bowyer.
Esplanade Park MemorialsAt Esplanade Park are Tan Kim Seng Fountain, the Cenotaph, and Lim Bo Seng Memorial. These three memorials were gazetted collectively as a National Monument.
Former Tanjong Pagar Railway StationThe Former Tanjong Pagar Railway Station was previously the southernmost terminal station of the Federated Malay States Railways. While the stately building no longer serves its original function, it continues to bear testimony to the rapid development of trade, industry, and transport in the colonial period, as well as to Singapore’s historical ties with Malaysia.
Civilian War MemorialThis is the first memorial in Singapore dedicated to the civilian victims of the Japanese Occupation (1942–1945). It calls to mind the shared sufferings of the various ethnic communities in Singapore, and the ardent hope that locals had after the war to rebuild their homes.
Chung Cheng High School (Main) Administration Building and Entrance ArchOne of Singapore’s oldest Chinese high schools, Chung Cheng High School was among the firsts to make higher education accessible to Chinese youth. The Administration Building and Entrance Arch bear testimony to the Chinese community’s commitment to quality education throughout the years.
Sri Thendayuthapani TempleSri Thendayuthapani Temple, commonly referred to as the Chettiars’ Temple, is one of Singapore’s oldest Hindu temples dedicated to Murugan, the Hindu deity who is also known as Sri Thendayuthapani. It stands as a living testimony to the Chettiars’ contributions to Singapore’s colonial economy.
Alkaff Upper Serangoon MosqueAlkaff Upper Serangoon Mosque was constructed by the mercantile and landowning Alkaff family to serve the spiritual needs of the local Muslim community at large. It stands as a reminder of the Arabs' philanthropic deeds and their contributions to colonial Singapore.
Jurong Town HallOn a hill overlooking Jurong estate, Jurong Town Hall once served as the headquarters of Jurong Town Corporation. It is emblematic of Jurong Town’s rapid growth during Singapore’s industrialisation in the post-independence years.
Istana Kampong GelamWithin the historic district of Kampong Gelam lies Istana Kampong Gelam (‘Gelam Village Palace’). Once the palace of the Malay royalty and the seat of sultanate in Singapore, the Istana bears testimony to Singapore’s historical links to the Malay world.
Former Fullerton BuildingThe former Fullerton Building is a prominent landmark situated at the mouth of the Singapore River. Most well remembered as the General Post Office (GPO) and having housed several government departments, this building has been a witness to many of Singapore’s milestones.
Changi Prison Gate Wall and TurretsChangi Prison was designed to be a maximum security prison to house up to 600 criminals sentenced to long-term imprisonment in British Singapore. The remaining structures of the original prison – the entrance gate, wall and turrets – stand as an enduring symbol of the suffering of those who defended Singapore and the tumultuous years of the Japanese Occupation (1942-1945).
Singapore River Bridges: Cavenagh Bridge, Anderson Bridge and Elgin BridgeCavenagh, Anderson and Elgin Bridges are the three most historic and architecturally impressive bridges that span the Singapore River. Collectively, they illustrate Singapore’s growth as a trading port and flourishing city. Located at the historic mouth of the Singapore River, the bridges symbolically connected Singapore with the world as they facilitated the trade and transport links necessary for the growth of the city.
Former Sun Yat Sen Villa (now Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall)Sun Yat-sen Nanyang Memorial Hall is one of the few surviving examples of villas that were once common sights in British Singapore. It serves as a reminder of the contributions of Chinese pioneers and their historic connection to the 1911 Chinese Revolution. For which reason did walter Camp of yale and other coaches in the late nineteenth century claim football made an especially worthwhile activity?For which reason did Walter Camp of Yale and other coaches in the late nineteenth-century claim football make an especially worthwhile activity? discipline. Drawing on the workplace model of scientific management, Camp emphasized drill and precision.
How did American missionaries sometimes end up justifying Western imperialism?How did American missionaries sometimes end up justifying Western imperialism? → When faced with repeated rejection, missionaries at times decried the "heathen races" and criticized those they could not convert as "corrupt and immoral." These judgments supported Western imperial assumptions of white supremacy.
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